Continuous changes in the times have a strong influence on industrial dynamics. A survey conducted by Zurich Insurance Group (2024) indicates that Generation Z will be the largest group in the labor market. Based on projections from the Central Statistics Agency or Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) for 2025, Generation Z, which includes individuals aged 15 to 29, is estimated to number 67.0 million, or 23.79% of Indonesia's total population of 281.6 million. In the context of employment, in February 2025, the total workforce of Generation Z reached 40,310,889 people, contributing approximately 26.3% of the total Indonesian workforce, namely 153,049,487 people. Generation Z, which currently comprises approximately 27% of the total workforce, is expected to grow to 31% by 2035 (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2025). Restiani and Puspitawati (2024) emphasized that Generation Z prioritizes work that is perceived as having clear values and goals. If their job does not align with their values, they tend to be disengaged and ultimately choose to resign.
This trend aligns with various findings showing that Work Engagement (WE) among Generation Z is relatively low. According to the latest global survey by Gallup in 2022, 18% of employees were disengaged from their responsibilities, while only 23% were actively engaged in their work (Gallup, 2024, cited in Suhaini & Yuniasanti, 2024). The survey also showed that in Indonesia, from 2020 to 2022, disengaged employees reached 67.84%, while engaged employees reached 24.15%.
WE is a positive and satisfying state that makes a person feel fulfilled and optimistic about their work (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Unlike transient emotions, WE is a stable psychological state that involves the overall mental and emotional aspects of work (Schaufeli et al., 2002). WE has a significant positive impact on organizations through increased performance, innovation, and commitment (Saks, 2006; Xanthopoulou et al., 2009). In contrast, low WE has the potential to cause serious problems, ranging from increased absenteeism to turnover intention, a form of disengagement (Xanthopoulou et al., 2009). This phenomenon is especially crucial for Generation Z, who are more likely to experience disengagement when their psychological needs are unmet. Therefore, modern organizations prioritize managing WE to develop more effective human resource systems (Shuck & Wollard, 2010). Job resources help create a work environment that facilitates employees’ completion of tasks and achievement of targets (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008).
To explain how WE is sustained, the Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) framework (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017) provides a foundational perspective by distinguishing between job demands, which deplete energy, and job resources that support motivation and engagement. Job resources refer to the physical, social, or organizational aspects of work, such as autonomy, supervisor support, performance feedback, and opportunities for development, that help employees achieve their goals, reduce the impact of job demands, and stimulate personal growth (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008). Within the JD-R framework, job resources operate through a motivational pathway: when employees perceive sufficient resources in their work environment, they are more likely to invest energy in their tasks, experience vigor and dedication, and remain engrossed in their work.
However, the JD-R framework alone offers a limited explanation of why employees with similar job resource levels can differ markedly in their engagement levels. To address this limitation, the present study integrates the JD-R model with the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 1989; Hobfoll et al., 2018). COR theory posits that individuals are motivated to acquire, protect, and accumulate resources that they value and that resources tend to operate in interconnected "caravans" rather than in isolation. From this perspective, job (external) and personal (internal) resources function as complementary components of a broader resource pool. COR theory further proposes that individuals with greater personal resources are more capable of mobilizing external resources effectively, generating "gain spirals" in which initial resources lead to the acquisition of additional resources, including higher engagement and well-being.
By integrating the JD-R and COR, this study conceptualizes WE as the outcome of a dynamic interaction between external (job resources) and internal (personal resources) reservoirs of energy. JD-R identifies which workplace conditions matter, while COR explains why and how these conditions are translated into engagement through the accumulation, protection, and spiral activation of resources. This integration is particularly relevant for Generation Z employees, whose engagement is shaped not only by what their organizations provide but also by their self-evaluative capacities to perceive, claim, and leverage those resources.
Personal resources refer to an individual's positive self-evaluation based on their ability to face challenges, sense of resilience, and sense of control over their work environment (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). One form of personal resource that has been widely researched and is highly relevant in this context is Core Self-Evaluations (CSE), a higher-order personality construct that reflects an individual's fundamental evaluation of themselves and comprises four traits: self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, internal locus of control, and emotional stability (Judge et al., 2003). Within the COR framework, CSE functions as a key internal resource that enables individuals to interpret challenges constructively, persist in the face of difficulties, and convert available job resources into engagement. Employees with high CSE are more likely to recognize opportunities, mobilize support, and maintain motivation, whereas those with low CSE may underutilize even abundant job resources because of self-doubt or a perceived lack of control.
Despite the theoretical promise of integrating job resources with CSE, several research gaps persist. First, although WE has been studied extensively in Western and managerial contexts, empirical evidence on Generation Z employees in Indonesia is still limited, even though this cohort constitutes more than a quarter of the national workforce and is projected to dominate it within the next decade (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2025). Cultural and structural features of the Indonesian labor market, such as collectivist work norms, hierarchical organizational structures, and rapid digital transformation, may shape the way job and personal resources translate into engagement in ways that differ from patterns observed in Western settings. Second, prior studies have tended to examine job and personal resources separately, with limited attention to their joint contribution to engagement. In particular, the integrative role of CSE as a personal resource that enhances the motivational potential of job resources remains underexplored, especially among early career, non-Western workforces. Third, most existing research has not explicitly grounded the relationship between job resources, CSE, and WE in a unified theoretical model that integrates the JD-R and COR theories, leaving the underlying mechanisms theoretically fragmented.
Building on these gaps, this study aims to examine the relationship between job resources, CSE, and WE among Generation Z employees in Indonesia using an integrated JD-R and COR theoretical framework. Theoretically, this study contributes to the literature by clarifying how external and internal resources jointly shape WE and by extending the JD-R–COR integration to the Indonesian Generation Z context, which has rarely been examined in previous research. Practically, the findings are expected to inform organizational strategies for designing job resources and developing personal resources that sustain engagement among young employees, thereby supporting retention, performance, and well-being in an increasingly competitive labor market.

This study employed a quantitative approach with a correlational design to examine the relationships between job resources, CSE, and WE among Indonesian Generation Z employees. Convenience sampling was used to recruit participants who met the predetermined inclusion criteria. The tools used in this study included a questionnaire as a platform for creating and distributing electronic questionnaires, smartphones or computers used by participants to access and complete the questionnaires, Internet connections required by both researchers and participants to access the online questionnaires, the latest version of SPSS statistical analysis software for data analysis, Microsoft Excel for initial data processing and data cleaning, and social media applications for distributing questionnaire links to potential participants.
Data were collected using three standardized instruments with acceptable reliabilities. Job resources were measured using the Job Resources Scale based on the JD-R model, consisting of 17 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (α = .66–.88). CSE were assessed using the Core Self-Evaluations Scale (CSES) developed by Judge et al. (2003), which includes nine items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (α = .64). WE was measured using the Utrecht WE Scale–9 (UWES-9) developed by Schaufeli et al. (2002), comprising 9 items rated on a 7-point Likert scale (α = .69–.82). Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26. As the data were not normally distributed, Spearman’s rank-order correlation was applied with a significance level of .05.

3.1. Results

3.1.1. Participants Overview
A total of 214 Generation Z employees were recruited for this research, and they were actively working in various occupational sectors in Indonesia. Participants were aged between 19 and 28 years and had diverse demographic characteristics, including gender, age, educational background, length of employment, job level, occupational sector, departmental affiliation, and work location. The sample was predominantly female (68.7%), with most participants in their early to mid-twenties, particularly aged 21–26. In terms of education, the majority of respondents held a D4/S1 (bachelor’s degree) as their highest level of education (64.0%). Most participants had 1–3 years of work experience (76.2%) and occupied staff-level positions (66.8%), reflecting an early career stage typical of Generation Z employees. Regarding work location, the largest proportion of participants worked in DKI Jakarta (37.9%), followed by several provinces on the island of Jawa (see Table 1).

Table 1. Participants Overview

3.1.2. Overview of WE
WE was measured using a 6-point Likert scale assessing three dimensions: vigor, dedication, and absorption, with a hypothetical mean of 3.50. Descriptive analysis indicated a high level of WE among participants, as the overall mean score (M = 4.06) exceeded the hypothetical mean score. Among the dimensions, dedication showed the highest mean score (M = 4.24), followed by absorption (M = 4.08) and vigor (M = 3.85), all of which were above the hypothetical midpoints. These results suggest that the participants demonstrated high enthusiasm, pride, and immersion in their work, with dedication emerging as the most prominent dimension of WE among Generation Z employees (see Table 2).

Table 2. WE Overview

Source: Author (2025)

3.1.3. Overview of Job Resources (JR)
Job resources were measured using a 5-point Likert scale assessing five dimensions: autonomy, social support, feedback, opportunities for development, and coaching, with a hypothetical mean of 3.00. Descriptive analysis indicated a high level of job resources among participants, as the overall mean score (M = 3.96) exceeded the hypothetical mean score. Among the dimensions, social support showed the highest mean score (M = 4.05), followed by opportunities for development (M = 4.03), feedback (M = 3.99), and autonomy (M = 3.95), all above the hypothetical midpoint. The coaching dimension showed a slightly lower but still relatively high mean score (M = 3.78). These results suggest that participants perceived strong job resources in their work environment, with social support being the most prominent dimension (see Table 3).

Table 3. Job Resources Overview

Source: Author (2025)

3.1.4. Overview of CSE
CSE were measured using a 5-point Likert scale assessing four dimensions: self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, internal locus of control, and emotional stability, with a hypothetical mean of 3.00. Descriptive analysis indicated a moderate level of CSE among participants, as the overall mean score (M = 3.25) slightly exceeded the hypothetical mean score. These results suggest that the participants demonstrated adequate confidence, perceived competence, self-control, and emotional stability, although these personal resources were not particularly high (see Table 4).

Table 4. CSE Overview
 
3.1.5. Correlation Analysis
For more details, see Table 5.

Table 5. Spearman Correlation Test – Hypothesis 1

Source: Author (2025)

Spearman's test results showed a correlation coefficient of 0.454 with a significance level (p-value) of 0.000 (p < 0.05). This result indicates a positive and significant relationship between job resources and WE. This finding indicates that the higher the perceived job resources of employees, the higher their engagement in their work.
An r value of 0.30–0.49 indicates a moderate correlation. Therefore, it can be concluded that Hypothesis 1 is accepted, namely, that job resources are positively and significantly related to WE in Generation Z employees (see Table 6).

Table 6. Spearman Correlation Test – Hypothesis 2

Source: Author (2025)

The analysis results show that the correlation coefficient between CSE and WE is 0.329, with a significance value (p) of 0.000 (p < 0.05). This finding indicates a positive and significant relationship between these two variables. In other words, the higher the positive self-evaluation an employee has, including self-confidence, feelings of capability, self-control, and emotional stability, the higher their level of WE. Thus, Hypothesis 2 is accepted, namely that there is a positive relationship between CSE and WE in Generation Z employees in Indonesia (see Table 7).

Table 7. Matrix Correlation Test

Source: Author (2025)

Based on the analysis results, the Kruskal-Wallis H was obtained at 18.052 with degrees of freedom (df) = 4 and a significance value of 0.001 (p < 0.05). These results indicate significant differences in WE levels based on job level.

3.2. Discussion
The results indicate that job resources and CSE have a positive and significant relationship with WE among Generation Z employees in Indonesia. This finding aligns with the COR Theory (Hobfoll, 2001), which explains that WE is formed through the availability and accumulation of resources. In this study, job resources function as external resources, whereas CSE functions as an internal resource that supports an individual's psychological well-being at work.
Job resources emerged as the most dominant factor related to WE in this study. This can be understood through the concept of resource passageways in COR Theory, namely that organizational resources such as social support, feedback, development opportunities, autonomy, and coaching enable employees to gain psychological energy, a sense of competence, and a sense of security at work. When these external resources are adequately available, employees are more likely to experience vigor, dedication, and absorption, which are core components of WE (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). This finding aligns with previous studies, such as those by Xanthopoulou et al. (2007), which showed that job resources have a consistent and strong relationship with engagement.
CSE also showed a positive relationship with WE, although the relationship was not as strong as that of job resources. In COR Theory, personal resources such as CSE function as internal capacities that help individuals maintain psychological energy, cope with stress, and respond adaptively to work demands (Hobfoll, 2001). CSE helps employees maintain emotional stability, feel competent, and have a sense of control over their work situations (Judge et al., 2003). Previous research has also shown that CSE has a positive and consistent relationship with WE (Mazzetti et al., 2023), although its position is more of a supporting factor than a primary factor when compared to job resources.
However, the effectiveness of personal resources is strongly influenced by external conditions such as social support. When job resources are abundant, employee motivation stems more from the work environment; thus, CSE serves as a supplement rather than a primary driver of engagement. The characteristics of the participants, who are mostly in their early careers, also make them rely more on external support than on internal strengths, which are still developing.
The findings of this study also overlap with those of Luo et al. (2024). In that study, CSE did not moderate the relationship between job resources and WE but was rather a variable with a direct and significant relationship. Based on this finding, this study positions CSE as a second independent variable rather than a moderator, thus providing a more accurate picture of how personal resources are closely related to shaping WE. By examining the relationship between the two variables separately, the results still show a consistent pattern: job resources are the more dominant factor, while CSE acts as an internal resource that complements and strengthens employee engagement, in line with the COR theory, which emphasizes that resources work in parallel and support each other.
The results of the inter-dimensional correlation matrix test reinforce the main findings of this study. In general, all dimensions of job resources and CSE showed a positive and significant relationship with all dimensions of WE. The dimensions of opportunities for development and feedback had the strongest correlation with dedication, indicating that for Generation Z, opportunities for growth and quality feedback foster enthusiasm, pride, and engagement with work. In contrast, the social support and vigor dimensions showed the weakest correlation, indicating that social support is important but does not directly increase the work energy. On the personal resources side, positive CSE correlated most strongly with vigor, suggesting that self-confidence and a positive view of one's abilities help employees maintain psychological energy. Negative CSE showed the weakest relationship with absorption, suggesting that anxiety can hinder the ability to focus on work.
In addition to the relationships between variables, the t-test results indicated differences in WE levels based on job title. This finding indicates that work experience and access to organizational resources differ by position. Within the COR Theory framework, individuals in certain positions tend to have varying levels of control, role clarity, and development opportunities, which influence their engagement. However, these differences are not interpreted as higher positions leading to higher engagement but rather as a reflection of variations in resource access within each job group. In other words, engagement is not solely determined by position but also by differences in the quality and quantity of resources available at specific job levels.
Overall, the findings of this study confirm that for Generation Z employees, the quality of the work environment is the primary factor shaping WE. Job resources serve as the primary foundation for engagement, whereas CSE serves as an internal resource that strengthens an individual's resilience and psychological readiness. Correlations between dimensions show a consistent pattern that organizational support and potential for self-development are highly valued by this generation. The t-test results complement these findings by indicating that access to resources varies across positions. Thus, WE in Generation Z is formed through a complementary combination of work environment factors and individual psychological strengths, with job resources being the most dominant driver.
Although this study provides a comprehensive overview of the relationship between job resources, CSE, and WE, several limitations warrant consideration. This study employed a cross-sectional design; therefore, the relationships between the variables reflect conditions at a single point in time and do not allow for causal conclusions. Furthermore, the purposive sampling technique limits the generalizability of the study results, as the participants involved do not fully represent the entire population of Generation Z employees in Indonesia, with diverse work contexts and organizational characteristics. Data collection relying on self-reports also opens up the potential for perception bias or common method bias, where participants' responses can be influenced by subjective circumstances or certain social tendencies. Furthermore, this study focused only on two forms of resources, job resources and CSE, and therefore failed to address other variables that theoretically and empirically influence WE, such as job demands, leadership style, organizational culture, or meaningful work. Considering these limitations, future research should develop research designs, sampling methods, and variable coverage to gain a broader and more in-depth understanding of the formation of WE among Generation Z in Indonesia.

The results showed that job resources had a positive and significant relationship with WE, meaning that the higher the support and resources perceived by employees, the higher their WE. In addition, CSE showed a positive and significant relationship with WE, although the strength of the relationship was lower than that of job resources. These findings are consistent with Hobfoll's (2001) COR Theory, which emphasizes the importance of external and internal resources in shaping WE. This study is expected to provide new insights for organizations in designing strategies to strengthen work resources and develop personal resources to increase WE among Generation Z employees.